Diversity in museums: The inclusive value of museum audio description
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2785-3233/15764Keywords:
museum communication, museum translation, museum audio description, museum audio description guidelines, social inclusionAbstract
This contribution seeks to explore the potential of museum audio description (AD) – a sub-genre of general screen AD – as an instance of intersemiotic translation for non-sighted and sighted alike by drawing on a systematic review of museum AD guidelines and on extensive bibliography from Museum Studies (MS), Translation Studies (TS) and, within the latter, Audiovisual Translation (AVT) and Media Accessibility (MA). The paper will first discuss the social mission of museums and the intrinsic diversity characterising their communication and translation practices, with a special focus on museum AD. It will then move on to the wider value of screen AD; although the latter is primarily intended as an access tool to help blind and visually impaired individuals construct a mental image of what they cannot partially or totally see, its recognised benefits for other groups (Perego 2017) will be addressed. Similarly, the paper will discuss the potential of museum AD for a wider audience by presenting insights from museum-specific AD guidelines. Museum AD may arguably be revisited as a form of museum translation for everybody, which could truly foster social inclusion.
References
AENOR. 2005. Norma UNE 153020: Audiodescripción para personas con discapacidad visual. Requisitos para la audiodescripción y elaboración de audioguías. Madrid: AENOR.
Ahrens, Barbara, Silvia Hansen-Schirra, Monika Krein-Kühle, Michael Schreiber, & Ursula Wienen (eds.). 2021. Translation – Kunstkommunikation – Museum. Berlin: Frank & Timme.
Arrufat Pérez de Zafra, María Asunción. 2019. “El subtitulado para sordos en las visitas guiadas a museos a través de vídeos en 360° y realidad virtual”. In Antonio Javier Chica Núñez & Silvia Martínez Martínez (eds.), Acceso al patrimonio cultural, científico y natural, 91–104. Granada: Ediciones Tragacanto.
Arrufat Pérez de Zafra, María Asunción, Ainhoa Abásolo Elices, & Silvia Martínez Martínez. 2021. “Análisis de los códigos visogestuales en el entorno digital”. REVLES 3, 158–183.
Audiovisual Media Services Directive. 2010. “Directive 2010/13/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 10 March 2010 on the coordination of certain provisions laid down by law, regulation or administrative action in Member States concerning the provision of audiovisual media services.” Eur-Lex L 95/1, 15 April 2010, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32010L0013 [last access on 30/09/2022].
Bartolini, Chiara. Forthcoming. How do university museums communicate online? Intercultural perspectives on museum discourse. Bologna: Bononia University Press.
Bartolini, Chiara & Sandra Nauert. 2020. “Qualitative interviews for investigating translation practices in museums”. MediAzioni 29, B105–B133.
Bittner, Hansjörg. 2012. “Audio description guidelines: A comparison.” New perspectives in translation 20, 41–61.
Bodo, Simona. 2008. “From ‘heritage education with intercultural goals’ to ‘intercultural heritage education’: conceptual framework and policy approaches in museums across Europe.” In ERICarts Institute (ed.), Sharing Diversity. National Approaches to Intercultural Dialogue in Europe, final report of a study carried out on behalf of the European Commission-Directorate General for Education and Culture, http://www.culturewise.ie/library/bookstag/articles/page/6/ [last access on 30/09/2022].
Braun, Sabine & Kim Starr. 2020. “Introduction: Mapping new horizons in audio description research.” In Sabine Braun & Kim Starr (eds.), Innovation in Audio Description Research, 135–158. London: Routledge.
Charlton, James I. 2000. Nothing About Us Without Us: Disability Oppression and Empowerment. Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Chen, Chia-Li & Min-Hsiu Liao. 2017. “National Identity, International Visitors: Narration and Translation of the Memorial Museum.” Museum and Society 15(1), 56–68.
Côme, Pauline. 2020a. “Institutional silences: the role of the translator in heritage narratives.” Paper presented at Association for the Study of Modern and Contemporary France and Society for the Study of French History Postgraduate Study Day, Queen’s University Belfast (UK), 7 March 2020.
Côme, Pauline. 2020b. “Translating Scotland’s heritage: the impact of translation fluency on visitor experience.” Paper presented at Fluidity, 13 May 2020, University of Glasgow (UK).
Connell, Bettye Rose, Mike Jones, Ron Mace, Jim Mueller, Abir Mullick, Elaine Ostroff, Jon Sanford, E. D. Steinfeld, Molly Story, & Gregg Vanderheiden. 1997. The principles of universal design. North Carolina: Center for Universal Design, North Carolina State University.
Council of Europe. 2005. “Convention on the Value of Cultural Heritage for Society.” https://www.coe.int/en/web/culture-and-heritage/faro-convention [last access on 30/09/2022].
Coxall, Helen. 1991. “How language means: An alternative view of museum text.” In Gaynor Kavanagh (ed.), Museum Languages: Objects and Texts, 85–100. Leicester: Leicester University Press.
Coxall, Helen. 1994. “Museum text as mediated message.” In Eilean Hooper-Greenhill (ed.), The Educational Role of the Museum, 132–139. London: Routledge.
Cunningham, Mary K. 2004. The interpreter’s training manual for museums. Washington D.C.: American Association of Museums.
De Coster, Karin & Volkmar Mühleis. 2007. “Intersensorial translation: Visual art made up by words.” In Jorge Díaz Cintas, Pilar Orero & Aline Remael (eds.), Media for All, 189–200. Leiden: Brill/Rodopi.
Deane-Cox, Sharon. 2014. “Remembering Oradour-sur-Glane: Collective Memory in Translation.” Translation and Literature 23(2), 272–283.
Deane-Cox, Sharon. 2017. “Remembering, witnessing and translation: female experiences of the Nazi camps.” Translation: A Transdisciplinary Journal 6, 91–130.
DescriVedendo. n.d. “10 punti per realizzare una descrizione efficace”, https://www.descrivedendo.it/home-2/le-linee-guida/ [last access on 30/09/2022].
Desvallées, André & François Mairesse. 2010. Key Concepts of Museology. Paris: Armand Colin.
Di Giovanni, Elena. 2020. “Eye Tracking and the Museum Experience in Italy.” Altre Modernità: Rivista di studi letterari e culturali 24, 10–24.
Dodd, Jocelyn, Alison Coles, & Richard Sandell. 1998. Building Bridges: Guidance for Museums and Galleries on Developing New Audiences. London: MGC.
Eardley, Alison F., Louise Fryer, Rachel Hutchinson, Matthew Cock, Peter Ride, & Josélia Neves. 2017. “Enriched audio description: Working towards an inclusive museum experience.” In Santoshi Halder & Lori Czop Assaf (eds.), Inclusion, Disability and Culture. Springer Inclusion, disability and culture, 195–207. Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
Eardley, Alison F., Clara Mineiro, Josélia Neves, & Peter Ride. 2016. “Redefining Access: Embracing multimodality, memorability and shared experience in Museums.” Curator: The Museum Journal 59(3), 263–286.
Falk, John H. & Lynn D Dierking. 1992. The museum experience. Washington, D.C.: Whalesback Books.
Ferguson, Linda, Carolyn MacLulich, & Louise Ravelli. 1995. Meanings and Messages: Language Guidelines for Museum Exhibitions. Sydney: Australian Museum.
Fina, Maria Elisa. 2018. Investigating Effective Audio Guiding: A Multimodal Comparison of the Genre in Italian and English. Roma: Carocci Editore.
Fryer, Louise. 2016. An Introduction to Audio Description. London & New York: Routledge.
Gambier, Yves. 2003. “Introduction. Screen Transadaptation: Perception and Reception.” The Translator 9(2), 171–189.
Garibay, Cecilia & Steven Yalowitz. 2015. “Redefining multilingualism in museums: A case for broadening our thinking.” Museums and Social Issues 10(1), 2–7.
Giansante, Lou. 2015. “Writing verbal Description Audio Tours, Art beyond Sight.” http://www.artbeyondsight.org/mei/verbaldescription-training/writing-verbal-description-for-audio-guides/ [last access on 30/09/2022].
Goodman, Nelson. 1985. “The end of the museum?” Journal of aesthetic education 19(2), 53–62.
Greco, Gian Maria. 2016. “On Accessibility as a Human Right, with an Application to Media Accessibility.” In Anna Matamala & Pilar Orero (eds.), Researching Audio Description. New Approaches, 11–33. London: Palgrave.
Greco, Gian Maria & Anna Jankowska. 2020. “Media Accessibility Within and Beyond Audiovisual Translation.” In Łukasz Bogucki & Mikołaj Deckert (eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of Audiovisual Translation and Media Accessibility, 57–82. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting.
Guillot, Marie-Noëlle. 2014. “Cross-cultural pragmatics and translation: The case of museum texts as interlingual representation.” In Juliane House (ed.), Translation: A Multidisciplinary Approach, 73–95. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Gurian, Elaine Heumann. 1995. “Offering Safer Public Spaces.” The Journal of Museum Education 20(3), 14–16.
Ham, Sam H. 2013 (1992). Interpretation: Making a difference on purpose. Colorado: Fulcrum Publishing Golden.
Hayhoe, Simon. 2017. Blind visitor experiences at art museums. New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Hein, George E. 1998. Learning in the museum. London: Routledge.
Hein, Hilde S. 2000. The museum in transition: a philosophical perspective. Washington & London: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Hooper-Greenhill, Eilean. 1991. “A new communication model for museums.” In Gaynor Kavanagh (ed.), Museum Languages: Objects and Texts, 49–61. Leicester: Leicester University Press.
Hooper-Greenhill, Eilean. 2000. Museums and the Interpretation of Visual Culture. London: Routledge.
Hudson, Kenneth. 1998. “The museum refuses to stand still.” Museum International 50(1), 43–50.
Hutchinson, Rachel S. & Alison F. Eardley. 2019. “Museum audio description: the problem of textual fidelity.” Perspectives (27)1, 42–57.
Ibáñez Moreno, Ana & Anna Vermeulen. 2013. “Audio Description as a Tool to Improve Lexical and Phraseological Competence in Foreign Language Learning.” In Dina Tsagari, & Georgios Floros (eds.), Translation in Language Teaching and Assessment, 41–63. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Press.
ICOM. 2017. “Code of Ethics”, https://icom.museum/en/resources/standards-guidelines/code-of-ethics/ [last access on 30/09/2022].
ICOM. 2022. “ICOM approves a new museum definition”, 24 August 2022, https://icom.museum/en/news/icom-approves-a-new-museum-definition/ [last access on 30/09/2022].
ITC. 2000. “ITC Guidance on Standards for Audio Description”, http://www.ofcom.org.uk/static/archive/itc/itc_publications/codes_guidance/audio_description/index.asp.html [last access on 30/09/2022].
Jakobson, Roman. 2012 (1959). “On Linguistic Aspects of Translation.” In Reuben Arthur Brower (ed.), On Translation, 232–239. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press.
Janes, Robert R. & Richard Sandell (eds.). 2019. Museum Activism. London & New York: Routledge.
Jankowska, Anna. 2020. “Mainstreaming audio description through technology.” In Sabine Braun & Kim Starr (eds.), Innovation in Audio Description Research, 135–158, London: Routledge.
Jiang, Chengzhi. 2010. “Quality assessment for the translation of museum texts: Application of a systemic functional model.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 18(2), 109–126.
Jiménez Hurtado, Catalina & Silvia Martínez Martínez. 2018. “Leisure and culture accessibility The OPERA Project.” Cultus 11, 38–60.
Jiménez Hurtado, Catalina & Claudia Seibel. Forthcoming. “Easy-to read: A description of a complex translation process.” In Cecilia Lazzaretti & Federico Sabatini (eds.), Inclusiveness in and through Museum Discourse. London: Palgrave Editor.
Jiménez Hurtado, Catalina, Claudia Seibel, & Silvia Soler Gallego. 2012. “Museos para todos. La traducción e interpretación para entornos multimodales como herramienta de accesibilidad universal.” MonTI 4, 349–383.
Jiménez Hurtado, Catalina & Silvia Soler Gallego. 2015. “Accessibility through Translation: A Corpus Study of Pictorial Audio Description.” In Jorge Díaz Cintas & Josélia Neves (eds.), Audiovisual Translation: Tacking stock, 277–298. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Kim, Kyung Hye. 2020. “Museum translation as a political act: narrative engagement for affective experiences in the War and Women's Human Rights Museum in Seoul.” Museum Management and Curatorship 35(5), 551–566.
Kjeldsen, Anna Karina & Matilde Nisbeth Jensen. 2015. “When words of wisdom are not wise: A study of accessibility in museum exhibition texts.” Nordisk Museologi 1, 91–111.
Kleege, Georgina. 2016. “Audio description described: Current standards, future innovations, larger implications.” Representations 135(1), 89–101.
Krein-Kühle, Monika. 2021. “Translating contemporary art: Challenges and implications.” In Barbara Ahrens, Silvia Hansen-Schirra, Monika Krein-Kühle, Michael Schreiber, & Ursula Wienen (eds.), Translation – Kunstkommunikation – Museum, 23–60. Berlin: Frank & Timme.
Krejtz, Izabela, Agnieszka Szarkowska, Krzysztof Krejtz, Agnieszka Walczak, & Andrew Duchowski. 2012. “Audio description as an aural guide of children's visual attention: evidence from an eye-tracking study.” In Association for Computing Machinery, Proceedings of the Symposium on Eye Tracking Research and Applications (ETRA ‘12), 99–106. New York: Association for Computing Machinery.
Liao, Min-Hsiu. 2018. “Museums and creative industries: The contribution of translation studies.” The Journal of Specialised Translation 29, 45–62.
Luque Colmenero, María Olalla & Silvia Soler Gallego. 2019. “Training audiodescribers for art museums.” Linguistica Antverpiensia 18, 166–181.
Luque Colmenero, María Olalla & Silvia Soler Gallego. 2021. “Evaluation and collaboration in creating online audio descriptions of visual art.” British Journal of Visual Impairment, 1–11.
Manfredi, Marina. 2021a. “Building and Enhancing Intercultural Communication in Museum Spaces through SFL and Translation Studies.” In Maria Estela Brisk, & Mary J. Schleppegrell (eds.), Language in Action: SFL Theory across Contexts, 257–283. Sheffield: Equinox.
Manfredi, Marina. 2021b. “Professional museum translators for promoting multilingualism and accessible texts: Translation practices in some Italian museums and a proposal.” Journal of Translation Studies 1, 59–86.
Maroević, Ivo. 1998. “The museum message: between the document and information.” In Eilean Hooper-Greenhill (ed.), Museum, media, message, 23–36. London: Routledge.
Martins, Cláudia. 2020. “Multisensory experiences in museums.” In Antonio Javier Chica Núñez & Silvia Martínez Martínez (eds.), Acceso al patrimonio cultural, científico y natural, 105–116. Granada: Ediciones Tragacanto.
Mazur, Iwona. 2019. “Audio description for all? Enhancing the experience of sighted viewers through visual media access services.” In Dror Abend-David (ed.), Representing Translation: The Representation of Translation and Translators in Contemporary Media, 122–149. London & New York: Bloomsbury.
Mazur, Iwona. 2020. “Audio Description: Concepts, Theories and Research Approaches.” In Łukasz Bogucki & Mikołaj Deckert (eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of Audiovisual Translation and Media Accessibility, 227–248. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting.
McManus, Paulette M. 1989. “Oh, yes, they do: How museum visitors read labels and interact with exhibit texts.” Curator the Museum Journal 32(3), 174–189.
McManus, Paulette M. 1991. “Making sense of exhibits.” In Gaynor Kavanagh (ed.), Museum Languages: Objects and Texts, 35–46. Leicester: Leicester University Press.
Morisset, Laure & Frédéric Gonant. 2008. La charte de l’audiodescription. Paris: Ministère des Affaires Sociales et de la Santé, https://www.sdicine.fr/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Charte-de-laudio-description-1008.pdf [last access on 30/09/2022].
Nauert, Sandra. 2021. Translation Policies and Practices in European Art Museums. Bologna: University of Bologna. (Doctoral dissertation).
Navarrete, Marga. 2018. “The use of audio description in foreign language education. A preliminary approach.” Translation and Translanguaging in Multilingual Contexts 4(1), 129–150.
Neather, Robert. 2008. “Translating tea: On the semiotics of interlingual practice in the Hong Kong museum of tea ware.” META: Translators’ Journal 53(1), 218–240.
Neather, Robert. 2012a. “Intertextuality, translation, and the semiotics of museum presentation: The case of bilingual texts in chinese museums.” Semiotica 192, 197–218.
Neather, Robert. 2012b. “‘Non-expert’ translators in a professional community.” The Translator 18(2), 245–268.
Neves, Josélia. 2018. “Cultures of Accessibility: Translation Making Cultural Heritage in Museums Accessible to People of All Abilities.” In Sue-Ann Harding & Ovidi Carbonell Cortés (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Translation and Culture, 415–430. London & New York: Routledge.
Peli, Eli, Elisabeth M. Fine, & Angela T. Labianca. 1996. “Evaluating visual information provided by audio description.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 90, 378–385.
Perego, Elisa. 2016. “Gains and losses of watching audio described films for sighted viewers.” Target. International Journal of Translation Studies 28(3), 424–444.
Perego, Elisa. 2017. “Audio description: A laboratory for the development of a new professional profile.” International Journal of Translation 19, 131–142.
Rai, Sonali, Joan Greening, & Leen Petré. 2010. A Comparative Study of Audio Description Guidelines Prevalent in Different Countries. London: Media and Culture Department, Royal National Institute of Blind.
Randaccio, Monica. 2020. “Museum AD: interpretative or un-interpretative audio description?” ESP Across Cultures 17, 93–112.
Ravelli, Louise J. 2006. Museum Texts: Communication Frameworks. London: Routledge.
Remael, Aline, Nina Reviers, & Gert Vercauteren (eds.). 2015. Pictures Painted in Words: ADLAB Audio Description Guidelines. Trieste: EUT.
Romero-Fresco, Pablo. 2018. “In support of a wide notion of media accessibility: Access to content and access to creation.” Journal of Audiovisual Translation 1(1), 187–204.
Royal National Institute of Blind People (RNIB), & VocalEyes. 2003. “Talking Images Guide. Museums, Galleries and Heritage Sites: Improving Access for Blind and Partially sighted People.” http://audiodescription.co.uk/uploads/general/Talking_Images_Guide_-_PDF_File_5.pdf [last access on 30/09/2022].
Sandell, Richard. 1998. “Museums as Agents of Social Inclusion.” Museum Management and Curatorship 17(4), 401–418.
Sandell, Richard. 2012. “Museums and the human rights frame.” In Richard Sandell & Eithne Nightingale (eds.), Museums, Equality and Social Justice, 195–215. London & New York: Routledge.
Seibel, Claudia, Laura Carlucci, & Silvia Martínez Martínez. 2020. “Multimodalidad y traducción intersemiótica accesible en entornos museísticos.” Lingue e Linguaggi 22, 223–244.
Snyder, Joel. 2008. “Audio description: The visual made verbal”. In Jorge Díaz Cintas (ed.), The Didactics of Audiovisual Translation, 191–198. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: Benjamins.
Snyder, Joel (ed.). 2010. “Visual Art / Exhibitions.” In Audio Description Guidelines and Best Practices, Vers. 3.1, 51–63. American Council of the Blind. https://adp.acb.org/ad.html [last access on 30/09/2022].
Soler Gallego, Silvia. 2014. “Audio description in art museums: genre and intermediality.” In Paula Rey Requeijo & Carmen Pisonero Gaona (eds.), Contenidos innovadores en la universidad actual, 675–685. Madrid: McGraw-Hill Education.
Soler Gallego, Silvia. 2018. “Audio descriptive guides in art museums: A corpus-based semantic analysis.” Translation and Interpreting Studies 13(2), 230–249.
Soler Gallego, Silvia. 2019. “Defining subjectivity in visual art audio description.” Meta 64(3), 708–733.
Soler Gallego, Silvia & Catalina Jiménez Hurtado. 2013. “Traducción accesible en el espacio museográfico multimodal: las guías audiodescriptivas.” The Journal of Specialised Translation 20, 181–200.
Starr, Kim L. 2017. “‘Thinking Inside the Box’: Audio Description for Cognitively Diverse Audiences.” Paper presented at the 6th Advanced Research Seminar on Audio Description ARSAD, 16–17 March 2017, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain.
Starr, Ruth E. 2016. Accessibility Practices & The Inclusive Museum: Legal Compliance, Professional Standards, and the Social Responsibility of Museums. Rochester: Rochester Institute of Technology. (Doctoral dissertation).
Sturge, Kate. 2007. Representing Others: Translation, Ethnography and the Museum. Manchester: St. Jerome.
Szarkowska, Agnieszka, Anna Jankowska, Krzysztof Krejtz, & Jarosław Kowalski. 2016. “Open Art: Designing accessible content in a multimedia guide app for visitors with and without sensory impairments.” In Anna Matamala & Pilar Orero (eds.), Researching audio description, 301–320. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Szarkowska, Agnieszka, Izabela Krejtz, Krzysztof Krejtz, & Andrew Duchowski. 2013. “Harnessing the Potential of Eye-Tracking for Media Accessibility.” In Sambor Grucza, Monika Płużyczka, & Justyna Zając (eds.), Translation Studies and Eye-Tracking Analysis, 153–183. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
Talaván, Noa & Jennifer Lertola. 2016. “Active Audiodescription to Promote Speaking Skills in Online Environments.” Sintagma, Revista de Lingüística 27, 59–74.
Talaván, Noa, Jennifer Lertola, & Ana Ibáñez Moreno. 2022. “Audio description and subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing: Media accessibility in foreign language learning.” Translation and Translanguaging in Multilingual Contexts 8(1), 1–29.
Taylor, Christopher. 2019. “Audio Description: A Multimodal Practice in Expansion.” In Janina Wildfeuer, Jana Pflaeging, John Bateman, Ognyan Seizov, & Chiao-I Tseng (eds.), Multimodality: Disciplinary Thoughts and the Challenge of Diversity, 195–218. Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter.
Thompson, Hannah & Vanessa Warne. 2018. “Blindness arts: An introduction.” Disability Studies Quarterly 38(3).
Tilden, Freeman. 1957. Interpreting Our Heritage. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Turnbull, Judith Anne. 2018. “Museum communication: the role of translation in disseminating culture.” TOKEN 7, 193–217.
UNESCO. 2005. “Convention for the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions”, https://en.unesco.org/creativity/convention [last access on 30/09/2022].
United Nations. 1948. “Universal Declaration of Human Rights”, https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights [last access on 30/09/2022].
United Nations. 1966. “International Covenant of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights”, https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-covenant-economic-social-and-cultural-rights [last access on 30/09/2022].
United Nations. 2006. “Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities”, https://www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/convention-on-the-rights-of-persons-with-disabilities.html [last access on 30/09/2022].
Vercauteren, Gert. 2007. “Towards a European guideline for audio description.” In Jorge Díaz Cintas, Pilar Orero, & Aline Remael (eds.), Media for All, 139–149. Leiden: Brill/Rodopi.
Veverka, John A. 2013 (1994). Interpretive Master Planning. Tustin (CA): Acorn Naturalists.
VocalEyes. 2019. Thinking of creating a recorded audio-descriptive guide for your museum? https://vocaleyes.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Recorded-AD-Guides-2019-03-29.pdf [last access on 30/09/2022].
Walczak, Agnieszka. 2016. “Foreign Language Class with Audio Description: A Case Study.” In Anna Matamala, & Pilar Orero (eds.), Researching Audio Description: New Approaches, 187–204. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Watson, Sheila. 2007. “Museums and their Communities.” In Sheila Watson (ed.), Museums and their Communities, 1–23. London & New York: Routledge.
Whitehead, Christopher. 2011. Interpreting Art in Museums and Galleries. London: Routledge.
Witcomb, Andrea. 2003. “A place for all of us? Museums and communities.” In Andrea Witcomb (ed.), Re-imagining the Museum: Beyond the Mausoleum, 79–101. London: Routledge.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Chiara Bartolini
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
